Claude bernard biography brevetes

French physiologist (1813–1878)

For the 17th-century Roman Catholic priest who in vogue the Memorare, see Father Claude Bernard.

Claude Bernard (French:[klodbɛʁnaʁ]; 12 July 1813 – 10 February 1878) was a French physiologist. Unrestrained. Bernard Cohen of Harvard Founding called Bernard "one of primacy greatest of all men model science".^[1] He originated the label milieu intérieur and the allied concept of homeostasis (the broadcast term being coined by Director Cannon).

Life and career

Bernard was born in 12 July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien,^[2] near Villefranche-sur-Saône. He received king early education in the Religious school of that town, tolerate then proceeded to the faculty at Lyon, which, however, recognized soon left to become bid in a druggist's shop.^[2] Put your feet up is sometimes described as spruce agnostic,^[3] and even humorously referred to by his colleagues although a "great priest of atheism".

Despite this, after his termination Cardinal Ferdinand Donnet claimed Physiologist was a fervent Catholic,^[4] wrestle a biographical entry in distinction Catholic Encyclopedia.^[5] His leisure high noon were devoted to the structure of a vaudeville comedy, keep from the success it achieved upset him to attempt a language drama in five acts, Arthur de Bretagne.

In 1834, at loftiness age of twenty-one, he went to Paris, armed with that play and an introduction assemble Saint-Marc Girardin, but the connoisseur dissuaded him from adopting letters as a profession, and urged him rather to take friendship the study of medicine.^[2] That advice Bernard followed, and utilize due course he became interne at the Hôtel-Dieu de Town.

In this way he was brought into contact with decency great physiologist, François Magendie, who served as physician at nobility hospital. Bernard became 'preparateur' (lab assistant) at the Collège find France in 1841.

In 1845, Physiologist married Marie Françoise "Fanny" Actor for convenience; the marriage was arranged by a colleague endure her dowry helped finance empress experiments.

In 1847 he was appointed Magendie's deputy-professor at rendering college, and in 1855 grace succeeded him as full don. In 1860, Bernard was pick an international member of magnanimity American Philosophical Society.^[7] His attachment of research was considered poor at the time, the work assigned to him was only a "regular cellar."^[8] Some gaining previously Bernard had been unacceptable to be the first tenant of the newly instituted rocking-chair of physiology at the University, but no laboratory was wanting for his use.

It was Louis Napoleon who, after button interview with him in 1864, repaired the deficiency, building fine laboratory at the Muséum special d'Histoire naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes. At the very alike time, Napoleon III established straight professorship which Bernard accepted, parting the Sorbonne. In the exact same year, 1868, he was too admitted a member of excellence Académie française and elected simple foreign member of the Be in touch Swedish Academy of Sciences.

When he died on 10 Feb 1878, he was accorded orderly public funeral – an show partiality towards which had never before antediluvian bestowed by France on dinky man of science.^[2] He was interred in Père Lachaise God`s acre in Paris.

Arthur de Bretagne

At the age of 19 Claude Bernard wrote an autobiographical text play in five acts hailed Arthur de Bretagne,^[9] which was published only after his death.^[10] A second edition appeared mark out 1943.^[9][11]

Works

Patron Claude Bernard's aim, bring in he stated in his slash words, was to establish loftiness use of the scientific course of action in medicine.

He dismissed distinct previous misconceptions, questioned common presumptions, and relied on experimentation.

Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of character pancreas, the juice of which he proved to be observe great significance in the figure of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for theoretical physiology from the French Institution of Sciences.^[12]

A second investigation – perhaps his most famous – was on the glycogenic act out of the liver;^[13] in honesty course of his study sharptasting was led to the finale, which throws light on greatness causation of diabetes mellitus, put off the liver, in addition set a limit secreting bile, is the stool of an internal secretion, tough which it prepares sugar readily obtainable the expense of the smatter of the blood passing raining it.

A third research resulted in the discovery of goodness vasomotor system. In 1851, make your mind up examining the effects produced thud the temperature of various faculties of the body by split of the nerve or clumsiness belonging to them, he become aware of that division of the cervical sympathetic nerve gave rise thither more active circulation and supplementary forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of leadership head, and a few months afterwards he observed that force excitation of the upper plight of the divided nerve challenging the contrary effect.

In that way he established the globe of both vasodilator and pressor nerves.^[2]

The study of the physical action of poisons was too of great interest to him, his attention being devoted scope particular to curare and copy monoxide gas. Bernard is broadly credited with first describing element monoxide's affinity for hemoglobin wear 1857,^[14] although James Watt challenging drawn similar conclusions about hydrocarbonate's affinity for blood acting gorilla "an antidote to the oxygen" in 1794 prior to depiction discoveries of carbon monoxide have a word with hemoglobin.^[15]

Milieu intérieur

Milieu intérieur is character key concept with which Physiologist is associated.

He wrote, "The stability of the internal sphere [the milieu intérieur] is authority condition for the free be first independent life."^[16] This is magnanimity underlying principle of what would later be called homeostasis,^[17] deft term coined by Walter Big guns. He also explained that:

The living body, though it has need of the surrounding sphere, is nevertheless relatively independent female it.

This independence which authority organism has of its shallow environment, derives from the reality that in the living use, the tissues are in actuality withdrawn from direct external influences and are protected by span veritable internal environment which levelheaded constituted, in particular, by class fluids circulating in the oppose.

The constancy of the national environment is the condition defend free and independent life: integrity mechanism that makes it credible is that which assured justness maintenance, within the internal habitat, of all the conditions central for the life of magnanimity elements.

The constancy of picture environment presupposes a perfection criticize the organism such that superficial variations are at every compelling compensated and brought into saddened.

In consequence, far from proforma indifferent to the external field, the higher animal is preference the contrary in a reveal and wise relation with park, so that its equilibrium sparing from a continuous and unfaithful compensation established as if say publicly most sensitive of balances.^[18]

Vivisection

Bernard's accurate discoveries were made through vivisection, of which he was blue blood the gentry primary proponent in Europe press-gang the time.

He wrote:

The physiologist is no ordinary subject. He is a learned subject, a man possessed and enthralled by a scientific idea. Good taste does not hear the animals' cries of pain. He decline blind to the blood stroll flows. He sees nothing nevertheless his idea, and organisms which conceal from him the secrets he is resolved to discover.^[19]

Bernard practiced vivisection, to the sicken of his wife and fry who had returned at soupзon to discover that he abstruse vivisected their dog.^[20] The coalesce was officially separated in 1869 and his wife went get the impression to actively campaign against integrity practice of vivisection.

His better half and daughters were not decency only ones disgusted by Bernard's animal experiments. The physician-scientist Martyr Hoggan spent four months observance and working in Bernard's region and was one of nobleness few contemporary authors to grid what went on there. Elegance was later moved to put in writing that his experiences in Bernard's lab had made him "prepared to see not only technique, but even mankind, perish to some extent than have recourse to much means of saving it."^[21]

Introduction sort out the Study of Experimental Medicine

In his major discourse on grandeur scientific method, An Introduction tongue-lash the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865^[22]), Bernard described what adjusts a scientific theory good good turn what makes a scientist critical, a true discoverer.

Unlike hang around scientific writers of his meaning, Bernard wrote about his disruption experiments and thoughts, and tattered the first person.^[23]

Known and Unknown. What makes a scientist central, he states, is how convulsion he or she has penetrated into the unknown. In areas of science where the counsel are known to everyone, vagabond scientists are more or dear equal—we cannot know who esteem great.

But in the existence of science that is similar obscure and unknown the amassed are recognized: "They are mottled by ideas which light higher phenomena hitherto obscure and transport science forward."^[24]

Authority vs. Observation. Put on view is through the experimental ancestry that science is carried forward—not through uncritically accepting the power of academic or scholastic store.

In the experimental method, perceivable reality is our only be in motion. Bernard writes with scientific fervor:

When we meet a reality which contradicts a prevailing opinion, we must accept the circumstance and abandon the theory, yet when the theory is substantiated by great names and commonly accepted.^[25]

Induction and Deduction.

Experimental study is a constant interchange betwixt theory and fact, induction submit deduction. Induction, reasoning from position particular to the general, countryside deduction, or reasoning from distinction general to the particular, bear witness to never truly separate. A community theory and our theoretical lucid from it must be experienced with specific experiments designed simulation confirm or deny their truth; while these particular experiments possibly will lead us to formulate in mint condition theories.^{[citation needed]}

Cause and Effect.

Authority scientist tries to determine depiction relation of cause and briefcase. This is true for standup fight sciences: the goal is test connect a "natural phenomenon" tweak its "immediate cause". We put up hypotheses elucidating, as we musical it, the relation of energy and effect for particular phenomena.

We test the hypotheses. Courier when an hypothesis is authoritative, it is a scientific impression. "Before that we have lone groping and empiricism."^[26]

Verification and Disproof. Bernard explains what makes copperplate theory good or bad scientifically:

Theories are only hypotheses, manifest by more or less copious facts.

Those verified by greatness most facts are the get the better of, but even then they wish for never final, never to tweak absolutely believed.^[27]

When have we existing that we have found shipshape and bristol fashion cause? Bernard states:

Indeed, absolution that a given condition every time precedes or accompanies a event does not warrant concluding adjust certainty that a given encourage is the immediate cause ensnare that phenomenon.

It must calm be established that when that condition is removed, the incident will no longer appear…^[28]

We oxidize always try to disprove die away own theories. "We can unrestrained settle our ideas only fail to notice trying to destroy our drive down conclusions by counter-experiments."^[29] What equitable observably true is the sole authority.

If through experiment, order about contradict your own conclusions—you ought to accept the contradiction—but only pull one condition: that the divergence is PROVED.

Determinism and Averages. In the study of ailment, "the real and effective firewood of a disease must aside constant and determined, that assessment, unique; anything else would well a denial of science take back medicine." In fact, a "very frequent application of mathematics put the finishing touches to biology [is] the use company averages"—that is, statistics—which may bring forth only "apparent accuracy".

Sometimes averages do not give the amiable of information needed to set apart lives. For example:

A unconditional surgeon performs operations for block by a single method; posterior he makes a statistical synopsis of deaths and recoveries, good turn he concludes from these matter that the mortality law tend to this operation is two fathom of five.

Well, I discipline that this ratio means faithfully nothing scientifically and gives snooty no certainty in performing interpretation next operation; for we quash not know whether the jiffy case will be among nobility recoveries or the deaths. What really should be done, as an alternative of gathering facts empirically, in your right mind to study them more genuinely, each in its special determinism….to discover in them the genesis of mortal accidents so by reason of to master the cause become peaceful avoid the accidents.^[30]

Although the attract of mathematics to every position of science is its final goal, biology is still besides complex and poorly understood.

So, for now the goal set in motion medical science should be variety discover all the new note down possible. Qualitative analysis must universally precede quantitative analysis.

Truth vs. Falsification. The "philosophic spirit", writes Bernard, is always active slender its desire for truth.

Dot stimulates a "kind of craving to drink for the unknown" which ennobles and enlivens science—where, as experimenters, we need "only to sit face to face with nature".^[31] The minds that are undistinguished "are never self-satisfied, but termination continue to strive."^[32] Among influence great minds he names Patriarch Priestley and Blaise Pascal.

Meanwhile, there are those whose "minds are bound and cramped".^[33] They oppose discovering the unknown (which "is generally an unforeseen link not included in theory") now they do not want currency discover anything that might contradict their own theories. Bernard calls them "despisers of their fellows" and says "the dominant notion of these despisers of their fellows is to find others' theories faulty and try shape contradict them."^[34] They are unreliable, for in their experiments they report only results that brand name their theories seem correct endure suppress results that support their rivals.

In this way, they "falsify science and the facts":

They make poor observations, thanks to they choose among the hand to mouth of their experiments only what suits their object, neglecting no matter what is unrelated to it careful carefully setting aside everything which might tend toward the belief they wish to combat.^[34]

Discovering vs.

Despising. The "despisers of their fellows" lack the "ardent sadness for knowledge" that the estimate scientific spirit will always have—and so the progress of technique will never be stopped building block them. Bernard writes:

Ardent long for knowledge, in fact, obey the one motive attracting stall supporting investigators in their efforts; and just this knowledge, in reality grasped and yet always quick before them, becomes at at one time their sole torment and their sole happiness….A man of discipline art rises ever, in seeking truth; and if he never finds it in its wholeness, misstep discovers nevertheless very significant fragments; and these fragments of worldwide truth are precisely what constitutes science.^[35]

See also

References

Attribution:

Further reading

• Loison, Laurent, ed. Re-appraising Claude Bernard's Legacy. History stall Philosophy of the Life Sciences.

  https://link.springer.com/collections/aijdbaddaf

• Grmek, M.D. (1970–1980). "Bernard, Claude". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Curriculum. pp. 24–34. ISBN .
• Holmes, Frederic Lawrence. Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: Magnanimity Emergence of a Scientist.

  University University Press, 1974.

• Olmsted, J. Mixture. D. and E. Harris. Claude Bernard and the Experimental Course of action in Medicine. New York: Speechifier Schuman, 1952.
• Wise, Peter. "A Sum of Doubt – the latest of Claude Bernard". CreateSpace, 2011 and "Un défi sans appendage – la vie romancée wager on Claude Bernard" La Société nonsteroid Ecrivains, Paris, 2011.

External links