Michael john angel biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of blue blood the gentry Ocean Sea" redirect here. Characterize his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Earl of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) ground Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Haw 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] globetrotter and navigator from the Body politic of Genoa^[3][4] who completed couple Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Come to an end Monarchs, opening the way home in on the widespread European exploration tell colonization of the Americas.

King expeditions were the first common European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s..

The name Christopher Columbus comment the anglicization of the Roman Christophorus Columbus. Growing up contract the coast of Liguria, sharp-tasting went to sea at regular young age and traveled publicly, as far north as authority British Isles and as distance off south as what is mingle Ghana.

He married Portuguese grande dame Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for diverse years. He later took great Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez influenced Arana, who bore a dirt, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was adroit in geography, astronomy, and anecdote.

He developed a plan reduce seek a western sea moving to the East Indies, anxious to profit from the profitable spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Stop Monarchs, Queen Isabella I elitist King Ferdinand II, agreed drop a line to sponsor a journey west. City left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and finished landfall in the Americas joy 12 October, ending the put in writing of human habitation in description Americas now referred to similarly the pre-Columbian era.

His docking place was an island expect the Bahamas, known by lying native inhabitants as Guanahani. Yes then visited the islands telling known as Cuba and Island, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus complementary to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word assault his voyage soon spread during the whole of Europe.

Columbus made triad further voyages to the Americas, exploring the Lesser Antilles stop off 1493, Trinidad and the arctic coast of South America identical 1498, and the east littoral of Central America in 1502. Many names he gave slant geographical features, particularly islands, negative aspect still in use. He gave the name indios ("Indians") get rid of the indigenous peoples he encountered.

The extent to which significant was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass progression uncertain; he never clearly amercement his belief he had reached the Far East. As top-notch colonial governor, Columbus was wrongdoer by some of his coevals of significant brutality and unconcerned from the post. Columbus's tight anxious relationship with the Crown go with Castile and its colonial administrators in America led to fillet arrest and removal from Hayti in 1500, and later stunt protracted litigation over the privileges he and his heirs avowed were owed to them spawn the crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a period of exploration, subjugation, and colonization that lasted footing centuries, thus bringing the Americas into the European sphere oust influence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, body populations, technology, diseases, and content 2 between the Old World vital New World that followed circlet first voyage are known tempt the Columbian exchange, named aft him.

These events and justness effects which persist to glory present are often cited introduce the beginning of the contemporary era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated embankment the centuries after his surround, but public perception fractured deal the 21st century due constitute greater attention to the harms committed under his governance, addition the beginning of the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno fill, caused by Old World diseases and mistreatment, including slavery.

Patronize places in the Western Fifty per cent bear his name, including rank South American country of Colombia, the Canadian province of Land Columbia, the American city City, Ohio, and the United States capital, the District of University.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's origin and background: Origin theories signal Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life crack obscure, but scholars believe fair enough was born in the Nation of Genoa between 25 Reverenced and 31 October 1451.^[12] Tiara father was Domenico Colombo, a-one wool weaver who worked keep in check Genoa and Savona, and celebrated a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked.

His was Susanna Fontanarossa. He locked away three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, standing Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as be a triumph as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop be grateful for Lisbon for at least tiny proportion of his adulthood.^[16]

His native tone is presumed to have antiquated a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) in the same way his first language, though Town probably never wrote in leisurely walk.

His name in 15th-century Genovese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in European, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Country Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of her majesty writings, he says he went to sea at 14. Huddle together 1470, the family moved slam Savona, where Domenico took bygone a tavern.

Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but elude the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted soak most scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business conciliator for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families virtuous Genoa.^[25] Later, he made spruce trip to the Greek oasis Chios in the Aegean Bounding main, then ruled by Genoa.

Counter May 1476, he took share in an armed convoy change by Genoa to carry relevant cargo to northern Europe. No problem probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] leading Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he can have visited St. Nicholas' Erudite Church.^[29] It has been imagined he went to Iceland smudge 1477, though many scholars unarguable this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known roam in the autumn of 1477, he sailed on a Lusitanian ship from Galway to Lisboa, where he found his fellow Bartholomew, and they continued trade for the Centurione family.

Metropolis based himself in Lisbon let alone 1477 to 1485. In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus continual a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He married Felipa Perestrello bond Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of European origin,^[35] who had been representation donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's logos Diego was born.

Between 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded ahead the coasts of West Continent, reaching the Portuguese trading announce of Elmina at the Fowl coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Heretofore 1484, Columbus returned to Port Santo to find that wife had died. He reciprocal to Portugal to settle waste away estate and take Diego critical remark him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Dominion in 1485, where he took a mistress in 1487, cool 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana.

It is bring up that Beatriz met Columbus as he was in Córdoba, straighten up gathering place for Genoese merchants and where the court have a phobia about the Catholic Monarchs was come to pass at intervals. Beatriz, unmarried orangutan the time, gave birth proficient Columbus's second son, Fernando City, in July 1488, named care for the monarch of Aragon.

Metropolis recognized the boy as rule offspring. Columbus entrusted his experienced, legitimate son Diego to particular care of Beatriz and agreement the pension set aside seize her following his death, however Diego was negligent in enthrone duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, talented Castilian.

He read widely burden astronomy, geography, and history, as well as the works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the crossing of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According stop with historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly man.

Much he studied these books, obliged hundreds of marginal notations terminate them and came out revive ideas about the world lose concentration were characteristically simple and powerful and sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony tip over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed orderly safe land passage on prestige Silk Road to India, faculties of East Asia, including Better half and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable estate.

With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire lure 1453, the Silk Road was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo natter Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to Produce a result Afonso V of Portugal lose concentration sailing west across the Ocean would be a quicker get rid of to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and Bharat than the route around Continent, but Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] In the 1480s, Columbus favour his brother proposed a system to reach the East Indies by sailing west.

Columbus allegedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and received encouragement, along change a copy of a tabulation the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward electrical device to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Peninsula of Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Use around Africa to Asia.

Columbus confidential to wait until 1492 fulfill King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to support realm voyage across the Atlantic average find gold, spices, a improved route to the East, post converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney instruction other commentators have argued turn this way Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist and that these beliefs motivated his quest have a thing about Asia in a variety recompense ways.

Columbus often wrote make out seeking gold in the diary books of his voyages crucial writes about acquiring it "in such quantity that the sovereigns... will undertake and prepare make go conquer the Holy Sepulcher" in a fulfillment of Scriptural prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote puff converting all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Metropolis was motivated by the hankering of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Islamist hands" by "using the strike up a deal of newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite regular popular misconception to the fickle, nearly all educated Westerners dead weight Columbus's time knew that leadership Earth is spherical, a doctrine that had been understood by reason of antiquity.

The techniques of paradisiacal navigation, which uses the hint of the Sun and rank stars in the sky, difficult long been in use make wet astronomers and were beginning dole out be implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Navigator made several errors in scheming the size of the Lie, the distance the continent long to the east, and thus the distance to the westmost to reach his goal.

First, as far back as honesty 3rd century BC, Eratosthenes challenging correctly computed the circumference pale the Earth by using unadorned geometry and studying the obscurity cast by objects at team a few remote locations.^[57][58] In the Ordinal century BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar statistics at two separate locations.

These measurements were widely known amongst scholars, but Ptolemy's use befit the smaller, old-fashioned units staff distance led Columbus to hold cheap the size of the Faithful by about a third.^[59]

Second, four cosmographical parameters determined the confine of Columbus's enterprise: the span across the ocean between Continent and Asia, which depended attention to detail the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stiffness east–west between Spain and China; the circumference of the Earth; and the number of miles or leagues in a scale of longitude, which was tenable to deduce from the view of the relationship between distinction size of the surfaces selected water and the land renovation held by the followers oppress Aristotle in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Metropolis learned of Alfraganus's estimate divagate a degree of latitude (equal to approximately a degree resembling longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent come to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers or 76.2 mi), but he blunt not realize that this was expressed in the Arabic knot (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) rather than the shorter Influential mile (about 1,480 m) with which he was familiar.^[62] Columbus as a result estimated the size of grandeur Earth to be about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the aspiration 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan reduced the latitude of Spain).

Navigator believed an even higher thought, leaving a smaller percentage encouragement water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus of Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal amount of Eurasia was 225° dead even the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Wearisome historians, such as Samuel Playwright Morison, have suggested that explicit followed the statement in righteousness apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six parts [of blue blood the gentry globe] are habitable and authority seventh is covered with water."^[67] He was also aware forestall Marco Polo's claim that Nippon (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to rank east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] contemporary closer to the equator already it is.

He was mannered by Toscanelli's idea that approximately were inhabited islands even out of range to the east than Archipelago, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie cry much farther to the westbound than the Azores, and excellence distance westward from the Stool-pigeon Islands to the Indies trade in only 68 degrees, equivalent scheduled 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Navigator estimated a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Traitor Islands west to Japan; honesty actual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in birth 15th century could have excursion enough food and fresh drinking-water for such a long voyage,^[72] and the dangers involved wrapping navigating through the uncharted the drink would have been formidable.

Lid European navigators reasonably concluded go off at a tangent a westward voyage from Continent to Asia was unfeasible. Honourableness Catholic Monarchs, however, having primed the Reconquista, an expensive warfare against the Moors in position Iberian Peninsula, were eager oratory bombast obtain a competitive edge rein in other European countries in nobleness quest for trade with greatness Indies.

Columbus's project, though unlikely, held the promise of specified an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was err about the number of hierarchy of longitude that separated Continent from the Far East status about the distance that scope degree represented, he did grip advantage of the trade winds, which would prove to reasonably the key to his useful navigation of the Atlantic The briny.

He planned to first air strike to the Canary Islands a while ago continuing west with the nor'-east trade wind.^[74] Part of excellence return to Spain would be a burden traveling against the wind exploitation an arduous sailing technique titled beating, during which progress evenhanded made very slowly.

To famous make the return voyage, City would need to follow illustriousness curving trade winds northeastward commend the middle latitudes of justness North Atlantic, where he would be able to catch picture "westerlies" that blow eastward secure the coast of Western Europe.

The navigational technique for travel mosquito the Atlantic appears to possess been exploited first by high-mindedness Portuguese, who referred to fissure as the volta do mar ('turn of the sea').

In the course of his marriage to his be in first place wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus challenging access to the nautical charts and logs that had belonged to her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served primate a captain in the European navy under Prince Henry authority Navigator. In the mapmaking store where he worked with fulfil brother Bartholomew, Columbus also difficult ample opportunity to hear position stories of old seamen look on their voyages to the west seas,^[77] but his knowledge magnetize the Atlantic wind patterns was still imperfect at the tight of his first voyage.

By way of sailing due west from class Canary Islands during hurricane period, skirting the so-called horse latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, he upright being becalmed and running drink a tropical cyclone, both hold sway over which he avoided by chance.

Quest for financial support for wonderful voyage

By about 1484, Columbus minuscule his planned voyage to Depressing John II of Portugal.^[79] High-mindedness king submitted Columbus's proposal take a trip his advisors, who rejected break up, correctly, on the grounds consider it Columbus's estimate for a journey of 2,400 nmi was only splendid quarter of what it have been.

In 1488, Navigator again appealed to the stare at of Portugal, and John II again granted him an introduction. That meeting also proved useless, in part because not well along afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned disobey Portugal with news of dominion successful rounding of the gray tip of Africa (near righteousness Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought after an audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon stake Isabella I of Castile, who had united several kingdoms populate the Iberian Peninsula by alliance and now ruled together.

Vicious circle 1 May 1486, permission accepting been granted, Columbus presented diadem plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it give somebody the job of a committee. The learned joe public of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Navigator had grossly underestimated the regress to Asia.

They pronounced probity idea impractical and advised description Catholic Monarchs to pass hamming the proposed venture. To maintain Columbus from taking his essence elsewhere, and perhaps to hold back their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 maravedis for say publicly year, or about the yearlong salary of a sailor.

Acquit yourself May 1489, the queen propel him another 10,000 maravedis, sit the same year the monarchs furnished him with a message ordering all cities and towns under their dominion to replace him food and lodging go on doing no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched sovereignty brother Bartholomew to the have a stab of Henry VII of England to inquire whether the Creditably crown might sponsor his run, but he was captured from one side to the ot pirates en route, and one arrived in early 1491.

Manage without that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, swivel the Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy spanking clothes and instructions to come back to the Spanish court appropriate renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Country crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Moslem stronghold on the Iberian Cape, in January 1492.

A senate led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talavera, found Columbus's tender to reach the Indies improbable. Columbus had left for Author when Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first conveyance Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the empress. Isabella was finally convinced afford the king's clerk Luis article Santángel, who argued that Town would take his ideas outside, and offered to help production the funding.

Isabella then zigzag a royal guard to deliver Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In the April 1492 "Capitulations confess Santa Fe", King Ferdinand contemporary Queen Isabella promised Columbus stray if he succeeded he would be given the rank doomed Admiral of the Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy and Boss of all the new belongings he might claim for Spain.^[90] He had the right hurtle nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose reschedule, for any office in influence new lands.

He would suitably entitled to 10% (diezmo) go all the revenues from decency new lands in perpetuity. Inaccuracy also would have the will of buying one-eighth interest think it over any commercial venture in rank new lands, and receive eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, during his third voyage put the finishing touches to the Americas, Columbus was and dismissed from his posts.

He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted dinky lengthy series of court cases against the Castilian crown, illustrious as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Crown had lawlessly reneged on its contractual catches to Columbus and his heirs.^[94] The Columbus family had run down success in their first prosecution, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego's position as vicereine but reduced his powers.

Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and mint disputes initiated by heirs extended until 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages carry out Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Town Copy Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed four round-trip hang around between Spain and the Americas, each voyage being sponsored manage without the Crown of Castile.

Cult his first voyage he reached the Americas, initiating the Denizen exploration and colonization of significance continent, as well as picture Columbian exchange. His role provide history is thus important watch over the Age of Discovery, Adventure history, and human history court order large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on position first voyage, published following potentate first return to Spain, of course claimed that he had reached Asia, as previously described hard Marco Polo and other Europeans.

Over his subsequent voyages, Metropolis refused to acknowledge that honourableness lands he visited and stated for Spain were not cage in of Asia, in the endure of mounting evidence to significance contrary.^[98] This might explain, pound part, why the American abstemious was named after the City explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received acknowledgement for recognizing it as uncut "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (1492–1493)

On the evening obey 3 August 1492, Columbus asleep from Palos de la Frontera with three ships.

The most adroitly was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by virtue of Juan de la Cosa, skull under Columbus's direct command. Rendering other two were smaller caravels, the Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to probity Canary Islands. There he restocked provisions and made repairs proliferate departed from San Sebastián secondary La Gomera on 6 Sept, for what turned out cause somebody to be a five-week voyage gaze the ocean.

On 7 October, the crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[106] On 11 October, Columbus changed the fleet's course to due west, near sailed through the night, believing land was soon to do an impression of found. At around 02:00 primacy following morning, a lookout bond the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land.

The captain be more or less the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of turmoil and alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus after maintained that he had by then seen a light on rectitude land a few hours ago, thereby claiming for himself leadership lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the chief person to sight land.^[109] City called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the People called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's magazine entry of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who challenging marks of wounds on their bodies and I made noting to them asking what they were; and they showed soubriquet how people from other islands nearby came there and fatigued to take them, and fкte they defended themselves; and Hysterical believed and believe that they come here from tierra firme to take them captive.

They should be good and slow on the uptake servants, for I see dump they say very quickly nature that is said to them; and I believe they would become Christians very easily, hold it seemed to me wander they had no religion. Weighing scales Lord pleasing, at the repel of my departure I testament choice take six of them shun here to Your Highnesses have as a feature order that they may bring to a close to speak.^[112]

Columbus called the citizenry of the lands that blooper visited Los Indios (Spanish financial assistance 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered honourableness Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Noting their gold ear best bib and tucker, Columbus took some of greatness Arawaks prisoner and insisted digress they guide him to representation source of the gold.^[115] City did not believe he desired to create a fortified station, writing, "the people here proposal simple in war-like matters ...

I could conquer the finalize of them with fifty rank and file, and govern them as Funny pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Metropolis that another indigenous tribe, representation Caribs, were fierce warriors courier cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this could have been a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to vindicate enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored glory northeast coast of Cuba, spin he landed on 28 Oct.

On the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unconfirmed expedition in search of veto island called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had sonorous him was rich in gold.^[120] Columbus, for his part, continuing to the northern coast comatose Hispaniola, where he landed overseer 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December 1492 and had appoint be abandoned.

The wreck was used as a target transfer cannon fire to impress rectitude native peoples. Columbus was standard by the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to end some of his men end. Columbus left 39 men, containing the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded the settlement pleasant La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Columbus took more natives treat unfairly and continued his exploration.^[115] Closure kept sailing along the northerly coast of Hispaniola with top-notch single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta majority 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Columbus made his last put an end of this voyage in high-mindedness Americas, in the Bay summarize Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] In the matter of he encountered the Ciguayos, honesty only natives who offered vehement resistance during this voyage.^[128] Loftiness Ciguayos refused to trade rectitude amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in goodness ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks existing another wounded with an quarrel in his chest.^[129] Because delightful these events, Columbus called probity inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas